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Two main elements affect the bias in the peer process. They underline that the ratings are not robust, e.g., changing reviewers can have a dramatic impact on the review results. Brezis and Birukou also show that the Peer Review process is not working properly. Moreover, Ragone et al., (2013) have shown that there is a low correlation between peer review outcomes and the future impact measured by citations. Many studies have emphasized the problems inherent to the process of peer review. Scholarly peer review has been subject to several criticisms, and various proposals for reforming the system have been suggested over the years. However, peer review does not entirely prevent publication of invalid research, and as experimentally controlled studies of this process are difficult to arrange, direct evidence that peer review improves the quality of published papers is scarce. Peer review is generally considered necessary to academic quality and is used in most major scholarly journals. Impartial review, especially of work in less narrowly defined or inter-disciplinary fields, may be difficult to accomplish, and the significance (good or bad) of an idea may never be widely appreciated among its contemporaries. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given (and often narrowly defined) field, who are qualified and able to perform reasonably impartial review. Peer review helps the academic publisher (that is, the editor-in-chief, the editorial board or the program committee) decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, or rejected for official publication in an academic journal, a monograph or in the proceedings of an academic conference. Scholarly peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of having a draft version of a researcher's methods and findings reviewed (usually anonymously) by experts (or 'peers') in the same field.

This may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine.

Peer review is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives, particularly as a tool to reach higher order processes in the affective and cognitive domains as defined by Bloom's taxonomy.

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Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process: accounting, law, engineering (e.g., software peer review, technical peer review), aviation, and even forest fire management. Further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc.

Professional peer review is common in the field of health care, where it is usually called clinical peer review. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would decide whether the treatment had met the required standards of medical care. He stated that a visiting physician had to make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. ДЄ prototype professional peer-review process was recommended in the Ethics of the Physician written by IshДЃq ibn К»AlД« al-RuhДЃwД« (854вЂ“931). Henry Oldenburg (1619вЂ“1677) was a German-born British philosopher who is seen as the 'father' of modern scientific peer review. In academia, peer review is used to inform decisions related to faculty advancement and tenure. Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification.

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